6.The Buddhist Crisis: The politics of religion

The Buddhist incidents that sparked the beginning of the end for Diem were the most amazing story of his government. Nobody could imagine that a few victims from a Buddhist protest in Hue, where the main incident started, would deteriorate into a major crisis with tragic consequences to the Diem brothers. What ensued was very confusing and history is still searching for the real answer.

The most far fetched theories have been put forward to explain the series of event during these fateful days of early May in 1963. Conspiracy versions abound, some blaming the Viet Cong [Vietnamese Communists] for manipulating the Buddhist opposition, others pointing at the CIA to undermining Diem's credibility. No doubt the months preceding the Buddhist ''repression'', the US had already decided to find an alternative to Diem in order to pursue the war against the North. The Buddhist revolt was the last straw which made the Americans realized the futility of defending a regime who wanted to commit to its own demise.

May 8, 1963 was the 2527th anniversary of the birth of The Buddha. Flags and paraphernalia were all over the city of Hue to commemorate the occasion. But monsignor Ngo Dinh Thuc, Diem's eldest brother was not in a good mood when he witnessed all the display of Buddhist fervor. The day before, coming back from La Vang he was quite upset about it. He immediately complained to the Hue authorities about the oversight because, curiously a few days before, the Saigon authorities launched an edict prohibiting the display of flags during religious festivities.

Buddhist anger was already mounting because earlier, the 5th of May there has been no objection to widespread display of Roman Catholic flags honoring the 25th anniversary of the promotion of Thuc himself as the Archbishop of Hue. Thousands of Buddhist protesters marched on to the Hue Radio station with the demand to be heard about their side of the story. Some kind of melee ensued and the result was more than nine casualties from the protest side. The local authorities were blamed for the incident. They in fact called out the regular army troops and armored vehicles to break up the demonstrations. Always fearing communist actions, the authorities banned any further protests which could only inflame the already explosive situation. The demonstrations continued with hunger strikes and the movement spread across the country like a lightning fire. What started as a small incident became an uncontrollable nightmare for the regime in Saigon.

On the morning of June 11, a Buddhist monk by the name of Thich Quang Duc immolated himself under the horrified eyes of some pedestrians and police officers near the Xa Loi pagoda in Saigon, the HQ of the protest movement. He was to be the first of seven suicides by fire in protest against the Diem regime. It was a spectacular first in modern VN history that a ''flag incident'' became a source of religious persecution. But the reasons underneath were more profound and the grievances simmering for a long time. It also showed that Diem and Nhu were at the last leg of paranoia and their own sense of persecution before world opinion.

The VN leaders became aware that their handling of the Buddhist matter was a failure originated from the inept chain of command somewhere down the line. Partly it was due to local bureaucratic bumbling, because the edict didn't prohibit religious flags per say if they are accompanied by VN flags under display. Also some overzealous Hue officials must have wanted to please Msgr Thuc by getting rid of the Buddhist flags a little too hastily after his ill-advised tantrum. And the local administration was under heavy pressure to solve a highly delicate dispute with sometimes conflicting orders coming from all levels and agencies of the government.

It was already too late for the regime to admit its ineptness by accepting the blame for the ''flag gaffe''. As usual, it's about time to save face, for to accept its own mistakes is to recognize its inadequacies. Attractive conspiracy theories had to be found by shifting the blame on ''foreign powers'' or more conveniently on the communists. As a matter of fact, the regime wasn't quite certain how to deal with the crisis at first, whether it should treat it as an honest mistake from the local administration or a serious misreading from the top. As the situation worsened, the regime blamed it on the communists for subverting the Buddhist opposition movement and using it as a platform to overtake South VN.

With the crisis reaching new heights, and sensing that the US would cut its ties, Diem and Nhu reverted to the ultimate fallacy. They floated around the impression or they convinced themselves that the US administration was behind the whole affair in order to bring down the regime or at least to make it more amenable to American demands. The truth is that Diem and Nhu were the only ones to blame for a political turmoil of their own making. When an inept institution failed, it's typical that the onus must be put on someone else shoulder. That's human nature especially when the leaders were insecure and imbued with contradictions.

To be fair to Diem and his apologists, the different allegations must be examined, including the central question of religious persecution suggested by Buddhist opponents. I doubt that Diem himself intended to use Religion[Catholicism] as a battle cry against its opponents. As a corollary, I think even less that Diem was personally behind the policy to persecute Buddhism and downgrade its influence in South VN. But most of the tactical moves came from his brother Nhu who, as we know was the brain and antenna of the government.

Unlike Diem who was a devout catholic, Nhu was devoid of religious morality, comparing it as a kind of opium he could make good use to dope and strengthen the South. Religion i.e the Catholic Church must be used as a shield to combat the atheist North. As with Personalism and its brainwashing of the regime rank and file, all means were justified to bring about a final victory against Communism, and Religion in this regard was an added value. Nhu was keenly conscious that the battle ahead would make or break his brother's fate and no imaginative effort should be spared.

The first order of the day was to increase catholic manpower of the South. It was to become one of the bright spot of the regime during its 1st year in power. More than 800,000 Catholics were brought into the South following the Geneva accord. They were an eloquent proof that VN Catholics feared for their lives and would be persecuted under North VN repressive policies had they stayed behind and that freedom of religion is anathema under Marxist rule.

The Diem regime deftly used the VN catholic refugees as a pawn to discredit Ho chi Minh for his supposedly religious intolerance so it could prove to world opinion that the fight against communism was not solely a VN concern. A smear campaign against the North was engineered by the CIA with the Vatican blessing. A well organized movement was launched to persuade Catholics to leave North VN, spreading all sorts of rumor about the Virgin Mary going South, about mistreatment they would endure had they stayed behind. and to accelerate the exodus, millions of leaflets were dropped into villages predicting famine and damnation of their souls if they stayed. There were even rumors of the North to be atom-bombed!

The Communists were actually caught off guard by the virulence of the message. They thought for the first time that popular support was not after all their forte and doubts began to surface among the rank and file about their own power of persuasion. After all, Ho and his subordinates didn't have the monopoly of popular support. Now they have to deal with rumors about their own possible dooms, according to the Fatima ''miracles'' and they have to compete against an invisible enemy, the Virgin Mary, whose statue was paraded in long meaningful processions in catholic villages and cities all across the South. The basic idea was to disrupt and weaken the North by creating a massive exodus of Catholic Northerners by dislocating them to the South and thereby strengthening the Diem regime. In that department, Diem and his team succeeded handily.

The resettlement of the Catholics went ahead, but not without hitches because Diem and Nhu wanted to relocate them into some strategic regions in order to use them effectively as splinter groups to defend against communist subversion. That created resentment among the non-Catholics groups, especially the Buddhists who are pacifist by virtue of their religious philosophy and never have played an active role in political infighting. Moreover everybody knew the fanaticism and determination of many Catholic refugees coming from the North. They didn't leave their lands, their villages and their way of life to go South on a fishing trip. They knew their flight southward as their last chance to survive and to rebuild their lives in a new environment, and South VN will be their last stand against a sworn enemy.

During that period, the Catholics have coined a phrase: ''if South VN fell, we would end up swimming in the Pacific Ocean." In that sense VN catholic refugees were part of the Vatican Army 'divisions' (that Stalin referred to when he condescendingly asked about the power of the Church and the number of its divisions.) Diem wanted to instill an added fighting spirit in the South with some infusion of fresh Catholic energy. After his victory against the sects, the momentum was on his side and he wanted to demonstrate that his moral asset -Catholicism- is a formidable political force to be reckoned with.

The politics of religion has begun, as an effective and expedite tool to combat the enemy, short of a better ideology against Marxism. Diem and Nhu were not yet blatant and unscrupulous to adopt religious[catholic] hegemony as a state policy and persecute other faiths, the very weakness they criticized the Ho regime for committing. On the other hand they overused their own cards and that may have played into the hands of those officials who were positioning to grab the biggest roles for themselves. Those with greater ambition planned further ahead for their own career and wanted to please their devout leader by converting themselves into Catholicism to obtain good credentials from the top.

For Diem Catholics were more thrust worthy because they went through the baptism of fire and blood experience in the North since the Communist Revolution. As a more reliable social group, they tended to be promoted more quickly to sensitive posts in the administration and the army. Most of the strategic positions of the regime were filled by Catholics, especially when one deals with security and military affairs. And all considerations are involved, Diem would favor that the candidate becomes catholic as in the case of many generals he particularly trusted, to his regret later on.

Everybody was vying for the prime position and being converted into the ''right religion'' was a passport for fast promotion. The envy and jockeying extended beyond religious allegiance. It extends into a Northerner/Southerner fight, with those in the Central region being the judge, as Diem came from Hue. It became an unending farce the VN people had to endure for years to come, thanks to the political immaturity of their masters. Leaders and their cronies were not smart enough to surmount their own clumsy pettiness and uninhibited personal interests to look at the broader picture. Maybe it was too much to ask from failing human beings... After the struggle against the sects came the posturing of the 3 main competing regions and finally the deadly politics of religion.

It is doubtful that Buddhist religious persecution was a state policy masterminded by Diem and Nhu. But the complacency of the regime and its turning a blind eye to nepotism and political cronyism on the basis of regional identity and its distrust of non-Catholic elements contributed to the alienation of the masses. The Diem regime no doubt has a biased policy against the Buddhist Southerners. It ought to pay dearly for that when they represented more than 85% of the population. It's a kind of religious apartheid that defied logic for the most simple-minded person.

In the end Diem never had a chance to recover from any of his political crisis. Before the damages of the war against the sects were about to heal, the regime already has to shift its meager political goodwill to tackle another internal conflict. Unfortunately the religious plight just kept swelling amidst a leadership vacuum. Diem just temporized and dragged his feet. Saving face was the order of the day and Diem authority was drifting. The Buddhist opponents were also at first uncertain about their strategy and seemed reasonable with its five initial demands. Basically they wanted religious freedom, an apology for the 'crime' committed in Hue and complete compensation for the victims' families. Some sort of compromise was under way but then suddenly the tone from the authorities side changed suddenly.

With the crisis unfolding in an ominous way, Diem then had to deal with the worst problem of his family, the sniping and destructive behavior of his own members, notably Mme Nhu or Trần Lệ Xuân. She publicly denounced that Buddhist militants are being manipulated by Communist infiltrators. The harsh tone from both sides kept climbing and the time for a compromise was well passed. With each day passing by, the Buddhists sensed that the momentum was on their side and they played the American card by exposing the Diem regime to world public opinion. More demonstrations and suicides by immolation followed. It was then that Mme Nhu pronounced the infamous expression of monk ''barbecues'' to the international media. From then on, the regime final days were numbered.

In any ''fin de règne'', whether it was the Italian Borgia or the French reigning Bourbon, the pattern is similar. The Ngo family has their Lucrece Borgia and Marie Antoinette combined in Mme Nhu or Lệ Xuân (tears of spring). Born in 1925 in Hanoi, she was regarded by default as the VN First Lady, Diem being unmarried. She had neither the feminine appeal of Marie Antoinette nor the depth or passion for artistic values of Lucrece Borgia. But she did resemble Louis XVI's wife for her insensitive statements and immature judgment. Much had been said about her reckless behavior during that critical period. And she was fortunate to escape Marie Antoinette's fate.

It was a pitiful tragedy that Diem didn't have a more helpful sister in law that would keep her mouth shut and stay out of the limelight for the sake of the country. There is no other way to describe Diem destiny than to say that he was a destitute man. All of his siblings (except the low profile Luyện) gave him a dreadful treatment while in power. From Ngô Đình Thục with his catholic ambition and narrow-mindedness to Mr Nhu devious and corrosive influence, and the diabetic secretive Cẩn that we haven't heard before, who was the lord of the Huế region. Now entered Mme Nhu into the power infighting. She was simply a disaster for Diem. and he endured it until the end, in silent frustration and distress.

I remember an anecdote in early 1963 when she was to inaugurate the new statue of the Trưng sisters at the Mê-Linh Plaza, near the Saigon Maritime Port. By coincidence I was nearby that evening. Mme Nhu always identified herself as a modern version of the Trưng sisters, the Vietnamese equivalent to Joan of Arc. They were the authentic heroines who dared fight against the invading Chinese back in the 1st century. Even the facial features of the statues resembled Mme Nhu's in the traditional VN woman ''áo dài'' wear. That evening there was a big crowd waiting for her arrival among the invited officials to the ceremony. It was late and the crowd was in an impatient mood to have a glimpse of her. Suddenly I heard people around saying loudly: '' bà Cố đến rồi...'' (Grandma has arrived!). Cố was used as an acronym for cố vấn or advisor which is the official title of Mr Nhu. But Cố also means Cố Nội, grandma or 'wicked' old lady. Even the plain clothed secret policeman right beside me who usually inspired fear among the people couldn't avoid a faint smile.

There's still a debate about her inexplicable influence within the Diem inner circle other than the one I advanced earlier regarding her 2 sons. Some melodramatic and gossipy theories say that she seduced Diem and successfully blackmailed him throughout his reign. Others pointed to the fact that Mr Nhu with his fertile imagination must have used his wife as a loose canon and a conduit to further his own agenda, through her theatrics and ill-tempered statements. Nhu may also manipulate his wife as a spoiler and trouble maker against the Americans once he saw that VN-US relations were beyond repair.  He wanted to provoke a Diem-US showdown, blaming Diem for the mess and eventually ripping the benefits as the new leader of the South. The subsequent events did give credence to that viewpoint, with Diem as a consenting player.

Although unpopular, Mme Nhu was regarded as a pioneer feminist in a society where male dominance was a fact of life, especially Vietnam in the 1950's. And she did rub them the wrong way by introducing through the VN legislature some Family's Laws defending women's rights regarding divorce instances. She also raised awareness about public morality by prohibiting dancing [sic] in discotheques and bars. Again, in a society where 99% of men (not all non-Catholics) wanted pleasure and lust, her morale crusades weren't endearing to the masses.

It's paradoxical that Diem lectured many times to others about the danger of having close relationship with women and their manipulative power, especially in Asian society where women didn't have the legal safeguards to be empowered and on their own. Diem once told an American official about the case of Nguyễn Hữu Thọ, the chairman of the NFL (National Front of Liberation), his main foe in the South, but also an old friend. According to Diem, when Thọ was young, he got involved with a young woman but his wife didn't know about the affair. So when the Communists found out, they blackmailed him to become their agent and Thọ was forced to accept it. Diem talked about the anecdote with an air of relish, insinuating that he himself didn't have the same kind of constraint towards women! It's very typical of Diem that he saw the forest but not the big tree in front of his nose. More was to come when madame Nhu publicly denounced the US to be the foreign power which supported the Buddhists against the regime.

During the whole crisis, the US embassy was deprived of its most important asset, the ambassador himself in the person of Mr Nolting, a Diem supporter. He was vacationing in Greece with his family. His deputy, Mr Trueheart tried to pressure Diem to soften the regime stand towards the Buddhists to no avail. In fact, the US reaction just made the Diem regime more sanguine in its actions against the opponents. When Nolting arrived back in Saigon in July 11, 1963 the situation was so tense that his efforts to reach out to Diem was a little bit too late. In the same period, the Saigon Embassy was informed that Nolting would be replaced by Henry Cabot lodge, a Republican with a tougher stance towards Diem. The regime already sensed that the relationship with its ally will never be the same and expected a drastic change in the US administration policy.

There were already signs that the regime was headed for a collision course and a final blow with the Americans. Ngo Dinh Nhu. in late July 1963 gave a speech whereby he openly criticized his own brother, president Diem of being a weak and incompetent leader because he tried to ''compromise with the Buddhists''. That he Nhu, was ready to ''quit the government if Diem failed to be tough...''. Nolting and other US officials were there to hear the incoherent speech from Nhu and thy didn't quite know how to react. Anyway the ambassador was already packing his suitcases to leave VN. He didn't want to make a big thing out of Nhu's ramblings. It was to be a big mistake for the Americans. On August 15, Nolting left VN on a hopeful note because he succeeded to impress on Diem to make a reconciliation attempt with the Buddhists. Then a few days later, thunder struck on the pagodas throughout South VN.

Barely a week after Nolting's departure from VN, the regime attacked the pagodas with vicious intensity and boldness. It was a carefully coordinated plan, well prepared in advance. Hundreds of monks and their supporters were arrested and hauled away in military trucks especially brought up for the occasion in Hue and Saigon. From that moment on, the regime relentlessly pursued its opponents and wanted to suppress them once and for all. Diem and Nhu's thinking was clear. They wanted to put the US and its new ambassador Lodge in a fait accompli situation. It's a sign that Diem may have lost touch with the political situation and may have abdicated his effective power to his brother Nhu and the hysterics of his wife. Mme Nhu even boasted that she was behind (i.e her husband) the decision to raid the Buddhist strongholds. There were even speculation that Diem wasn't aware of the raids before they took place under the actions of the Nhu's Special Forces. That Diem [like the Americans], was  a victim of his brother 'coup de force'. The regular army was not involved in the scheme to attack the Buddhist centers. it was Nhu alone and his forces that conducted the operations.

On that fateful day of Aug 21st, 1963, the US administration and its embassy were completely caught by surprise. It was a major blunder of intelligence from the US policy makers, both in Washington and in Saigon. And it made the aftermath worse, for the Americans considered the regime action as a humiliating affront, especially during the transition period when the top US official position was being vacant in VN. The regime went even further when they cut all the communication lines of US officials in their premises, except for the military cooperation. It was to be a decisive turning point in US-Diem relations and the point of no return was crossed. The big cities in VN were buzzing with rumors about arbitrary arrests and tortures. But life went on as usual, so much so that I was myself an innocent victim of the regime oppression on Aug 25th, a few days after the Xa Loi pagoda raid.

It started as a Sunday and it was an experience I will remember for the rest of my life. My brother and I, we went for a ride in our French Mobylette scooter to visit our uncle and his kids in the Tan Dinh area. Then I had an unexplained urge to go to church that day, a decision I usually liked to skip each time my parents asked me to do so. We drove downtown towards the basilica and the police just asked us to follow the one way direction. We were then signaled to stop under duress right next to a garbage dump in the corner of our lycée school Rousseau , which was located not too far from the former Diem residence, the presidential palace under reconstruction [after it was bombed in the 1962 coup attempt]. There were already quite a few people, especially young adults who were stopped and detained at that very place before we came. I saw a guy being punched right in the face because he didn't have time to put on his brake. He fell down in front of us from his motorbike and his face bloodied. My brother almost got the same treatment had he failed to stop right away, the secret policeman already raising his fist...

A few feet at the opposite street's corner, I saw a bunch of Special Forces soldiers in characteristic leopard camouflage uniform with white and green dots, and their unusually long bayonets mounted on their rifle. They looked at us with a self satisfactory and unconcerned smile. It was still early in the morning, then suddenly, we were hauled away in some military trucks heading towards the suburbs to the Quang Trung military barracks. When we arrived, I then realized we were the lucky lot to be arrested that way. A few moments after we arrived in the main court of the camp, there were noisy commotions. Soldiers in full battle gear and bayonet shining in the sun were waiting for some newly arrivals, this time I noticed they were college students in their 20's coming down from the trucks but with hands tied behind their back. They were aligned right in the center of the court and forced to kneel down. I thought they were to be shot right in front of our eyes! It was a surrealist scene that a 12 year-old boy had to witness. Nothing serious happened because I thought a few minutes later that they wanted to impress us with the stage managed scene to warn us about possible harsher treatments had we tried to escape or became unreasonable like the students they just paraded in front of us.

Some time later, a 2-star general showed up and spoke to the whole crowd. We must have been at least a few hundred detainees. He said: '' my name is Mai Hữu Xuân and I want to assure you that we will make your stay here as pleasant and as short as possible...'' He meant some thing like '' the Army was not against you but under the circumstances we have to act for security reasons...'' He didn't convince any of us and I felt then that he didn't seem convinced about his own statement. Looking back, I didn't bear any grudge to the military at the time. They treated us well under the circumstances, especially the officers and NCOs. When they saw me they couldn't believe that a twelve year old can be a serious opponent to the Diem regime. They almost made me cry by saying that I am probably the youngest political prisoner of the entire episode and I believe I was.

We were given military green uniform to wear and it took them hours to find the one that suited me. We didn't have much to do except learning the ABCs of military salute and drill every day. It was a spartan routine. Meals were frugal and reduced to basic staple like rice and sardine cans. I had no taste for eating or enjoying anything but thinking about my family and how worried my parents are, for we were missing for many days already. Days followed nights and vice versa until about one week later we have news that an important delegation will come to visit us. They were the deputies of the National assembly making a fact finding tour to ascertain that we weren't mistreated by the military. They looked like a bunch of no-names coming to declare platitudes in the defense of the regime's actions against us. Later on, one of them facing me and feeling noticeably uneasy due to my age, said: '' I have kids like you and I feel sympathetic about your situation...''.

We were assembled in a big hall with the cameras and the press taking pictures of the event. The scene was well stage managed. First we all had to sing the presidential hymn which began like this:
'' the entire VN people love and are grateful to president Ngo, long live president Ngo [repeat], ...''.  It was a bizarre and grotesque atmosphere, beyond my innocent imagination. I just stood there numb during the ceremony. Afterwards, we were allowed to show our talents to the guests.We did a few musical numbers and the main artist was Elvis Phuong, a well known young musician. For a short while, we had a good time and put aside our apprehension to sing and enjoy the show. The Vietnamese were always adept at improvising and Elvis Phuong even had his guitar and some musical instruments for the occasion. He happened to be arrested (with his guitar) in the streets of Saigon, like many others during that period. I also met our own neighbor of Tan Son Nhat airport area. he was an engineering graduate, the son of Mr.Vinh, a friend and close neighbor. A lot of the middle class and elite of the VN society upbringings were caught in the ongoing upheaval and ended up in these detention camps all around the city. It was a well coordinated plan from Diem and Nhu during the pagoda raids to preempt any attempt of students protest against the regime, so they could have a free hand against the hardcore Buddhist elements.

On our last day of detention, we had a surprise visit by major general Tran Van Don. He came to see us and talked to the arrested students. His black Fiat limousine with the 3 star flag went straight to our dormitory and he got out.The general wore a khaki uniform with his medals. He was immaculate and well manicured in his dress with his rosy cheeks and a nice sun tan, like he just got out straight from a beauty salon. Tran Van Don has the reputation to be the 'handsome' general of the ARVN. Time bears out that he was no more than that, although he was to become the brain behind the coup to oust Diem two months later.  He tried to sample a few remarks from the crowd. He also looked at me a bit puzzled by my young age. we were a few feet apart. I said to my brother that the 'guy' knows our elder sister when she worked for USOM in Hue and he was at that time the commander of the First Corps Army Division. We discussed that it might be possible to let him know so that we could be released early! But then I thought we were going home anyway sooner or later, so I didn't bother to talk to him.

We were finally released after more than a week in detention. I was becoming sick and exhausted from the whole experience. It's not the same when you hear about repression and arrest in the news than being yourself the victim of such treatment. It changed my way of thinking of course, in a good way I think. It made me feel more mature when I wasn't even a teenager. But then I understand the reasons that pushed so many VN patriots to espouse the other side cause and to become communists, not by ideological conviction but rather they were forced to. If I were a bit older at the time, I would have seriously considered that option. Luckily I didn't celebrate my 13th birthday yet when I was arrested. I was an ordinary kid having a caring family. I loved my country but I resented the injustice brought upon my innocent youth. I came up with my own response to the dilemma for I already felt that my own country was a place unsuitable for my future. But that's another story.

When I came back home, my parents were obviously relieved but I could sense that my father avoided talking about the things he went through. I realized later that my dad went nuts when we disappeared from the streets of Saigon on that fateful Sunday August 25th. The story my family later told me was that a certain Mr. B, a friend of the family kept visiting us and he received the wrath of my father during our arrest. He happened to work for Mr. Trần Kim Tuyến, the infamous Secret police chief for Nhu.I remember him as a Catholic northerner, well versed into political discussion and very well informed of the current events. He's a kind of mild mannered, unassuming type, a typical Nhu Personalist devotee with a lackluster personality. He told my father that even if his kids were arrested, he wouldn't know how to find them out! My father didn't buy his answer and my misfortune shook my family's confidence in the Diem regime, as is the case for other middle class people. The whole urban class, Catholic and Buddhist alike was disenchanted with Diem and Nhu for good.

Looking back at the whole episode, we could be tempted to conclude that the raids and brutal arrests were acts of desperation that showed the near bankruptcy of the regime.  No doubt Diem and Nhu felt they have been cornered by a more sophisticated opponent, the Buddhist group who used modern media tools to a more adept public opinion, especially the US press which was more than willing to play the game. The picture of Thich quảng Đức monk in flames which made worldwide audience was the case in point. Moreover, the regime thought that the US administration was helping the opponents or even manufacturing the whole crisis to make Diem vulnerable and see it as a warning. It suspected that the CIA was behind the incident in Huế and the subsequent Buddhist revolt. Diem and Nhu had 2 options to get out of the quandary. They could pull back and concede their mistake which is not in their normal psyche. The opposition parties would jump on the bandwagon with the Buddhists and demand for more. After religious freedom it would be political freedom, period.That would undo almost everything Diem Nhu had fought hard for the last 9 years to consolidate their power base. Their usual paranoia and psychotic insecurity would not allow them to feel safe once their grip on power started to unwind.

The only course left is to harden their position and go for broke while there is a vacuum in the American decision process in the Embassy. This time Diem thought that he was dealing with another sect, Buddhism. He concluded that Buddhist movement was more than a religious one, it became a political force that challenged his authority and he would not accept that. The good element for him was they don't have military power to effectively pose an immediate threat to the regime like the Binh Xuyen.If he could crush the Buddhist movement decisively, the US administration would get the signal that they should not play with fire. Moreover Diem and Nhu were absolutely aware that the Americans were deeply divided over the course of action towards the regime. Diem and Nhu grieved the departure of Nolting, their 'man' in Saigon who understood their plight. They took the risk of alienating what was left of the US goodwill, figuring that the next US envoy won't be so sympathetic to their cause. But regardless of the personality matter, Diem made the bet that their allies needed him more than he needed them. That the US had more to lose if the crisis dragged on, with no alternative replacement to his leadership. In a sense, his weaknesses wre his trump card in this political chess game. This reasoning will be replayed many times over in the next decade in the VN conflict. The tragedy of Diem could be summed up by his stubborn sense of being irreplaceable. His motto must have been: ''Après moi le déluge''. Unfortunately, history proved him right.